A Beginner's Guide to the Politics of Spain
As an international or multilingual person who is considering moving to Barcelona, or who is settling into life in the city, there are many things to organise and understand. From housing, finding a job, or higher education, signing paperwork, and acclimatising to a different culture and rhythm of life, being new to Barcelona certainly involves a lot of adjustment, but also many exciting opportunities to explore and expand your own knowledge.
One of the many important subjects worth looking into, as an international person new to Spain, is gaining an overview of the country’s political system. Understanding Spain’s political history and its current political climate, which parties are most prominent at the moment, and which current governmental issues hold the most importance, is a key factor in getting to know this country and its people on a deeper level, as well as seeing Spain’s role in a global context.
For this purpose, we have put together a comprehensive guide to Spain’s political system below. Read on to find out how politics in Spain work, and which aspects of government are the most important to keep in mind.
The Political System in Spain
Introduction to Spain's Political System
To provide a brief overview, Spain is a parliamentary monarchy. This means that while the monarch functions as the ceremonial head of Spain, the government itself is run by the prime minister and parliament within a democratic framework. Additionally, Spain governs under a ‘State of Autonomies’ system, meaning that jurisdiction is independent and decentralised. The seventeen autonomous communities, as well as the two autonomous cities of Spain, all have their own regional or local governments.
Spain officially joined the EU in 1986, and ranks as a ‘full democracy’ on the EIU Democracy Index in 2024. The Spanish constitution, which came into effect in 1978, during the time in which the country was transitioning back to a democratic system after the end of Franco’s dictatorship in 1975, forms the foundation of Spain’s political system today.
The Head of State: The Crown
As of 2021, Spain’s current monarch is King Felipe VI. Although the crown’s role in Spanish politics is mainly symbolic, and the King represents the unity of the Spanish nation, he also carries select political responsibilities. He acts as the highest representative of international relations and is also responsible for other formal constitutional functions, such as appointing the prime minister.
The Head of Government: The Prime Minister
Spain’s current prime minister, as of 2018, is Pedro Sánchez, who belongs to the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party (PSOE). The prime minister is the leader of the national government, and a representative for the role is appointed following elections. While these are typically held every four years, terms may end earlier.
The Electoral Process
Within Spain’s political system, general elections to determine new parliamentary representatives are held every four years, unless the prime minister calls for early elections. Unlike in other systems, however, the prime minister is not elected directly by the Spanish public. Instead, citizens elect the representatives of the legislative branch, namely the members of the Congress of Deputies and the Senate, who then go on to appoint the prime minister. During this process, all 350 seats in Congress and 208 members of the Senate are elected directly by a general vote, while the remaining 57 senators are appointed by regional parliaments.
Once the prime minister has been elected, he then proposes candidates, appointed by the Crown, for his ‘Consejo de Ministros’, his Council of Ministers, which is the main decision-making body of the Spanish government. The prime minister has the power to reshuffle his Council of Ministers at his discretion, which is often the case. The Spanish election process shows us that the executive and legislative branches in this system are divided but still interlinked, not only through general elections, but also due to the prime minister’s regular attendance in both the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
The Executive Branch
As mentioned above, the executive is determined by the legislative branch, which is chosen by the general public. In addition to the role of the prime minister, you can find a summary of the most relevant executive institutions in the Spanish political system listed below.
Consejo de Ministros (Council of Ministers)
The Council of Ministers, which consists of the prime minister, vice presidents, and other ministers, handles the main decision-making functions of the government, such as domestic and foreign policy, state administration, and the defense of the state.
Consejo de Estado (Council of State)
The Council of State primarily consists of members who have held roles of importance in the past, such as ex-presidents or vice presidents. This council has the role of advising the government. While for some procedures, the government is required to ask the Consejo de Estado’s advice, they are nonetheless not required to follow it.
Consejo Económico y Social (Economic and Social Council)
The function of this executive body is to advise the government and provide independent opinions on issues revolving around labour or socioeconomic topics, as well as to represent trade unions and other civic interests. Additionally, the CES publishes research and analyses policies concerning socioeconomic issues and regulations.
The Legislative Branch
Spain’s parliament, called the ‘Cortes Generales’, consists of two main bodies: the Congress of Deputies, known as the Cámara Baja, or the ‘Lower House’, and the Senate, the Cámara Alta, or ‘Upper House’. The legislative body is responsible for representing the people of Spain and supervising the actions of the executive branch, as well as taking care of budgetary functions.
Cámara Baja (Congress of Deputies)
The Congress of Deputies consists of 350 members, who are appointed by the public in general elections. This institution directly represents the people of Spain.
To achieve an absolute majority, a party or coalition must gain 176 seats (half plus one). This majority allows legislation to pass more easily within a government. Still, in practice, coalitions and minority governments are often formed to gain a majority, thereby relying on other parties for support.
The Congress of Deputies is responsible for supervising the actions of the government, passing state laws and bills, approving the national budget, and appointing or removing the prime minister. While the Senate holds the power to introduce bills or veto decisions made by the Congress of Deputies, the Congress nonetheless holds the authority to override vetoes and make a final decision.
Cámara Alta (Senate)
Whereas the Congress of Deputies directly represents the people of Spain, the Senate stands for the separate territories of the country, ensuring that the interests of the autonomous communities and regions of Spain are represented in governmental decision-making.
The Senate comprises 266 senators in total. 208 of these are elected by the general public, with each province of Spain electing four senators. The remaining 58 seats are appointed by the regional governments of the seventeen autonomous communities.
While the Congress of Deputies holds the ultimate decision-making power, the Senate acts as an overseeing force and has the right to veto, review, and examine the bills passed by Congress. It also oversees the actions of the executive branch, and aids in defining the state budget alongside the Congress of Deputies.
Defensor de Pueblo (Ombudsman)
In Spain’s political system, the Defensor de Pueblo, called an Ombudsman in English, is a singular impartial official appointed by the legislative branch to ensure the rights of citizens are being met. Their role is to investigate complaints against institutions made by the public, to ensure that civil rights are respected by all governmental administrations, and that all processes are handled with transparency.
Tribunal de Cuentas (Court of Auditors)
This institution, which reports to the ‘Cortes Generales’, is responsible for overseeing the State’s and the public sector’s financial management. It ensures that the State spends money legally and responsibly, as well as monitoring the accounts of political parties, and the donations they receive from independent foundations. Every year, the Court of Auditors publishes a financial report to ensure maximum transparency of government finances, and suggests spending improvements.
The Judicial Branch
The Judiciary in Spain is structured in a hierarchical system and is governed by the Consejo General del Poder Judicial, or the General Council of the Judiciary. The individual courts of the judicial branch oversee cases under various laws, such as civil, administrative, labour, and constitutional issues.
Consejo General del Poder Judicial (General Council of the Judiciary)
The General Council of the Judiciary is the highest body of authority within the judiciary branch of the Spanish political system. It acts as a government for judges and magistrates, and is comprised of twenty members and one president, who is also the president of the Supreme Court. Ten of these members are elected by the Congress of Deputies, and ten are elected by the Senate. The General Council of the Judiciary is responsible for overseeing the appointment of judges in all of Spain.
Tribunal Supremo (Supreme Court)
The Supreme Court is the highest judicial authority in all of Spain and is located in Madrid. This political body is responsible for handling the most important and high-priority legal cases in the country. The president of the Supreme Court is appointed by the King.
Audiencia Nacional (National High Court)
The National High Court of Spain is the judicial organ that investigates especially heavy and complex criminal cases, such as terrorism, corruption, or organised crime.
Fiscal General del Estado (Crown Prosecutor of the State)
The role of Crown Prosecutor of the State is embodied by the Attorney General of the State, who is appointed by the King at the direction of the government. Their task is to defend civil rights and public interest, to monitor all public prosecutors in Spain, and ensure the independence of the judicial courts.
Tribunal Constitucional (Constitutional Court)
Although not technically a part of the hierarchical court system of the judiciary branch, seeing as it acts independently, the Tribunal Constitucional is nonetheless a vital judiciary body in Spanish politics. The court decides whether laws and governmental decisions are constitutional.
The most important political bodies, such as the Senate, the Congress of Deputies, the government, the Supreme Court, as well as the Ombudsman all have the authority to go to the Constitutional Court to ask whether something is constitutional or not. Similarly, the ‘recurso de amparo’, a specific constitutional appeal in Spain, allows every single Spanish citizen to appeal to the Tribunal Constitucional if they feel that they are being treated unconstitutionally, or that their civil rights are being violated by public authorities.
While the Constitutional Court has the authority to decide on cases, it is only to determine whether they are constitutional or not, without being able to implement any further action. The following legal procedures are then handled by the Supreme Court.
Spain's Main Political Parties
Spain is a multi-party state, which results in several parties being involved in Spanish politics. Oftentimes, because of this, coalitions need to be formed, and parties need to work together to achieve a majority government. Below you will find an overview of Spain’s current main political parties.
PSOE (Partido Socialista Obrero Español)
PSOE is the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party, a center-left party led by Spain’s current prime minister, Pedro Sánchez. Founded in 1879, it is one of the two major national parties in Spain and is also the head of the current coalition government. PSOE’s main objectives are rooted in social democracy, focusing on progressive social policies, social welfare, and equality.
PP (Partido Popular)
The Partido Popular, meaning the Popular or People’s Party, is the main opposition party in the current Spanish government. Led by Alberto Núñez Feijóo and founded in 1976, PP is a center-right to right-wing party whose core foundations are centered around Christian democracy and economic growth.
Sumar
Sumar is a left-wing coalition in Spain, founded in 2023 by Yolanda Díaz, who is the Minister of Labour and the Second Deputy Prime Minister of Spain. The Sumar movement was created to unite smaller green and progressive parties, and it is now in coalition with PSOE in the national government.
Podemos
Podemos is a left-wing party that emerged after the 15-M movement in 2014. Triggered by the 2008 financial crisis, the movement was defined by grassroots social and political activism due to high unemployment rates and political corruption. Podemos, which has split from the Sumar movement, now stands in opposition to PSOE’s coalition government.
Vox
Vox, founded in 2013 by former members of the Partido Popular, is a far-right party led by Santiago Abascal. The party’s ideology centers around Spanish nationalism and anti-immigration.
Influential Regional Parties
Because Spain’s political system is decentralised, many regional parties in the country also hold a lot of power, not only in questions of regional autonomy, but also when it comes to forming coalitions and passing legislation. Some of these influential parties include EH Bildu, a left-wing Basque coalition that is for the region’s independence, and the Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC), a left-wing Catalan pro-independence party.
Regional Autonomy
Due to the decentralisation of Spain’s political system, known as a State of Autonomies (Estado de las Autonomías), which has been in place since the establishment of the Spanish Constitution in 1978, regional and local governments have a certain degree of executive and legislative self-governing power over their own communities. Spain is made up of seventeen autonomous regions and two autonomous cities, which, to an extent, function independently from the national government.
Regional Institutions
The autonomous regions, such as Catalonia, Madrid, or Andalusia, and the two autonomous cities, Ceuta and Melilla, have a similar political structure to the national government. They all consist of a Regional Parliament and a Regional Council of Government, which are responsible for passing regional laws, approving regional budgets, and passing legislation on regional healthcare, education, and other public services.
Each region is made up of one or more provinces (provincias), of which there are a total of fifty in Spain as a whole. These historical provinces, such as Valencia and Málaga, which were established in 1833, additionally have Provincial Councils that are responsible for municipal services on a smaller scale.
Local Institutions
In addition to the autonomous regions, Spain also has over 8,000 municipalities, or municipios, which encompass towns, cities, or villages, and their surrounding areas. These are local governments and consist primarily of a town hall, known as an ayuntamiento in Spanish. The municipalities carry a fair amount of financial and administrative autonomy, and handle localised services, such as local police, public services, urban planning, and infrastructure in their vicinity.
Summary
While Spanish politics might seem like a complex puzzle of intersecting institutions and processes, we hope this guide could shed some light on how the individual parts of the national and regional governments fit together. To conclude, let us provide a brief overview of the most important features of Spain’s political system:
- Spain is a parliamentary monarchy (the prime minister is the head of government, while the King is the ceremonial head of state).
2. The current Prime Minister of Spain is Pedro Sánchez, leader of the PSOE, the Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party, which has formed a coalition with the left-wing movement Sumar in the national government.
3. When general elections are held, the Spanish public does not vote directly for their prime minister. Instead, citizens elect the representatives of Parliament, who then appoint the prime minister.
4. Spain works as a State of Autonomies: the system is decentralised, meaning that regional and local governments hold a large amount of authority and administrative power in their respective areas.
To find out more about Spanish politics and history, or about Catalan culture especially, feel free to check out some of our articles below!
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